Who were the Assassins?
- Davit Grigoryan
- Jan 22
- 8 min read
Updated: Feb 16
Assassins – a term you’re likely familiar with from the game Assassin’s Creed, as well as various movies, TV series, and comics. According to legend, a Persian caliph once decided to bring order to his country. He believed that the land was overrun with foreign spies and began capturing and executing them. One morning, he awoke to find a dagger beside his bed and a note that read: “If you don’t stop, the dagger will be in your heart.” The note was written by Hasan-i Sabbah, also known as the Old Man of the Mountain, the leader of the feared sect of assassins.
Origins of the Order of Assassins
Almost simultaneously with Islam’s meteoric rise to superpower status in the seventh century, internal divisions permanently split the new faith into two opposing factions. These were the Sunni—Muslims who believed that Abu Bakr’s succession of Muhammad in 632 was rightful—and the Shia, who considered the prophet’s cousin and son-in-law, Ali, the legitimate heir, or Imam.
After several civil wars, the Umayyad leader Muawiya seized the caliphate from Ali’s heirs. This ongoing struggle against centralized power came to define Shia identity and led to the emergence of various subgroups with diverging viewpoints. Over time, the Abbasids overthrew the Umayyads in yet another civil war. During the reign of Abbasid Caliph al-Mansur, one of these new sects—the Ismaili—began to take shape.
At some point during his reign, the sixth Shia Imam, Ja'far al-Sadiq, declared his radical eldest son, Ismail, as his divinely inspired successor—a doctrine known as Nass. However, this plan was upended in 762 when Ismail unexpectedly died at the age of 40, raising difficult questions about the identity of the next imam. When Ja’far himself passed away a few years later, six different factions emerged, each disputing who the rightful successor should be.
Two of these groups became the first Ismaili Shia by affirming the legitimacy of Ismail as Imam, despite his death, and supporting his descendants. In contrast, those who recognized Ismail’s younger brother, Musa, as the rightful Imam eventually became known as the Twelvers—the Shia denomination later championed by Iranian states, from the Safavid dynasty to the modern Islamic Republic of Iran.
The Ismailiyah faded from historical records until the mid-ninth century, when their leaders reemerged and propelled the movement across the weakening Abbasid Caliphate, spreading from the Maghreb to Khurasan. The movement succeeded in breaking off vital regions from the once-unified Caliphate. In Arabia, an Ismaili revolt led to the creation of a "Religious-Utopian Republic" in what is now Bahrain, under the Qarmatian dynasty. This society, while maintaining a slaveholding system, was unusually egalitarian and communal for its time. However, the crowning achievement of this sectarian revolution was the establishment of the Fatimid Caliphate under al-Mahdi Billah in North Africa.
Although the Fatimids initially controlled a relatively small and peripheral territory, their power grew significantly in 969 with the conquest of Egypt. This victory marked the beginning of what historian Farhad Daftary has called the Ismaili century.
In the century following Egypt’s conquest by the Shia, a rich and diverse body of Ismaili literature flourished. It blended with other traditions, giving rise to incredibly intricate systems of thought. The Fatimids also developed sophisticated administrative and financial structures and re-established far-reaching trade routes to India. Alongside the wealth and exotic goods these routes brought, they also facilitated the spread of Ismaili teachings to Gujarat.
However, by the second half of the eleventh century, the Fatimid star began to wane as the Shia caliphate faced mounting internal and external challenges. A dynastic crisis shattered Ismaili unity permanently in December 1094, following the death of Fatimid Caliph al-Mustansir. After a 58-year reign, it was widely expected that his well-prepared, 50-year-old son, Abu Mansur Nizar, would ascend to the throne in Cairo.
However, the powerful vizier, al-Afdal, who effectively controlled the government, sought to maintain his grip on power. Upon al-Mustansir’s death, al-Afdal orchestrated a palace coup, installing Nizar’s inexperienced 20-year-old brother, al-Musta'li, as Caliph. Al-Afdal calculated that he could manipulate the younger and less experienced ruler. This usurpation succeeded with the backing of the caliphate’s army and the support of influential religious and court figures loyal to al-Afdal.
Nizar, however, refused to accept this outcome. He fled to Alexandria, where he was proclaimed Caliph by a Turkic governor. The local population also rallied behind him, giving the appearance that Nizar’s rebellion might succeed.
A Nizarist army initially repelled an attack by the vizier’s forces and even advanced as far as Cairo. However, al-Afdal marshaled his superior resources and laid siege to Alexandria, forcing Nizar’s surrender in 1095. The rightful Fatimid heir was soon imprisoned and executed by immurement.
Despite this, most of the Ismaili religious communities in Egypt and Syria eventually accepted the new succession. In contrast, Persian and other supporters in the eastern Muslim world refused to reconcile, continuing to support the martyred prince’s lineage. These dissenters would go on to form the independent Nizari sect. One prominent figure among them, Hasan-i Sabbah, would lead their movement and establish what became known as the Assassins' Order.
The founding of the Ismaili-Nizari state
Hasan-i Sabbah was a visionary leader who understood that creating a new state would require more than just the sympathy and support of the masses. To achieve this, he began to prepare his army. However, openly organizing such a force was too dangerous, so he instead established underground cells of preachers throughout the caliphate. These cells recruited supporters and gathered crucial information. At the same time, a strict hierarchy had already begun to form, uniting small groups scattered across the region.
Hasan-i Sabbah did not remain long at the court of the caliph. In 1090, he fled from Cairo to the mountainous regions of Persia, where he gathered his supporters and chose the capital of his future state. The first capital of the Assassins was the impregnable castle of Alamut, perched on a spur of the Elburz Mountains, well hidden among the mountain ranges northwest of Qazvin (in modern-day Iran). Alamut, meaning “Eagle’s Nest,” was accessible via narrow paths that could be easily guarded by a small garrison. The route to the castle also passed through deep gorges and turbulent mountain streams, making its defense nearly impenetrable.
Next, Hasan-i Sabbah purchased the fortress from the Seljuk governor Alavi Mahdi, marking the founding of the Ismaili-Nizari state. The new state quickly expanded, increasing its influence across the Muslim world. To protect it, a network of heavily fortified mountain fortresses was established in northern Iran and Syria. At the same time, key local figures who posed obstacles to this expansion were eliminated.
Hasan-i Sabbah became Sheikh Hasan-i I Sabbah and was given the title "Sheikh al-Jabal" within the hierarchy of the Assassins. However, the Crusaders more commonly referred to him as the "Old Man of the Mountain."
How did the Assassins train?
The assassination of Chief Vizier Nizam al-Mulk had a significant impact and inspired Hasan with a relatively inexpensive yet highly effective defensive strategy for his state. Instead of maintaining a large army, he created an Order of Assassins. The order was made up not only of assassins but also of spy preachers. Although Hasan rarely left the fortress, he knew all the details of life in the surrounding regions.
Initially, Hasan limited himself to promising his followers paradise in the afterlife, but over time, he began to show them glimpses of it in reality. He became the authorized representative and executor of the will of the “Hidden Imam” and developed his theory of heavenly reward as a consequence of complete obedience.
The order recruited boys and young men from poor families, typically between the ages of 12 and 20. They were told that they had been chosen by the "Hidden Imam." The famous traveler Marco Polo, in his Book on the Diversity of the World, describes how the disciples of the Old Man of the Mountain were trained to develop reckless determination. The young recruits were often intoxicated with wine or hashish until they lost consciousness, after which they were transported to a beautiful garden, designed according to Muslim canons, located in a secluded mountain valley. In this "magical" garden, the boys were pampered with exquisite food they had never tasted before. Beautiful girls, posing as virgins from paradise, promised the future assassins that they would return only after completing their mission and dying in battle against the infidels.
This “paradise” lasted for several days, long enough to make a lasting impression without becoming tiresome. Afterward, the young man was put to sleep again and returned to the castle. Upon awakening, the Mountain Elder spoke eloquently about the young man’s journey, at the command of the "Hidden Imam," to the real paradise as described in the Quran. By influencing fragile young minds in this way, they created obedient "biorobots" with unquestioning loyalty.
How did the Assassins treat the Crusaders and Muslims?
During the Crusade of the late 11th century, there was a lack of unity among the ranks of the Crusader Knights, with some fighting for faith and others for the promise of rich spoils. This division allowed Hasan to employ a "divide and conquer" strategy. As a result, the Assassins were enlisted by European barons who came to the East seeking plunder. These barons formed temporary alliances and coalitions, but at the first opportunity, they were ready to betray their allies in favor of more profitable alliances or by sabotaging them to seize their spoils. Similarly, the crusading knights, too, did not hesitate to resolve internal conflicts by employing the Assassins.
Having conquered Egypt in 1171, the Mamluks under Salah ad-Din sought to restore their true faith and unite to fight the Crusaders. They defeated the Ismailis in Egypt and turned their attention to the Crusaders. The Kingdom of Jerusalem, after withstanding numerous attacks by Saladin, was forced to ally with the Assassins. To the Assassins, it mattered little who they fought, as they regarded both sides of the conflict as enemies. Remarkably, Saladin survived up to eight assassination attempts during this time.
The alliance between the Crusaders and the Assassins was short-lived. When Conrad of Montferrat, King of Jerusalem, robbed Ismaili merchants, he effectively signed his death warrant. After eliminating the greedy king, the Assassins began targeting prominent figures from both camps. Among their victims were six viziers, three caliphs, several dozen city rulers, and various clergy. European rulers also fell prey to their wrath, including Raymond I, Conrad of Montferrat, the Duke of Bavaria, and Abul-Mahasina Ibn Taghribirdi. The latter, a prominent public figure, dared to criticize the Assassins and paid the ultimate price for it.
The achievements of the Assassins were not in vain; their practices were adopted by many secret societies around the world. The strict discipline, hierarchical ranking system, insignia, emblems, and symbols all became highly regarded. The golden age of the Assassins began under Hasan I, who ruled for over 30 years and died in 1124. His successors tried to build upon his success but were unable to surpass his legacy.
The Fall of the Assassins
One of the main reasons for the fall of the Assassins was the internal power struggle and succession crisis that plagued their leadership. The death of the charismatic leader Hasan-i Sabbah in 1124 created a power vacuum, leading to infighting among his followers. This internal discord weakened the sect’s unity and its ability to carry out covert operations effectively.
The Mongol invasions marked a major turning point in the history of the Assassins. In 1256, the Mongols, led by Hulagu Khan, launched a devastating assault on the Assassin fortress of Alamut. The siege resulted in the destruction of Alamut and the scattering of the sect’s members. The loss of their fortified base severely weakened the Assassins' organizational structure and left them vulnerable to external threats.
As the political landscape of the Middle East underwent significant changes during the 13th century, the relevance of the Assassin sect began to diminish. The rise of powerful regional powers, such as the Mamluks in Egypt and the Seljuks in Persia, led to the marginalization of the Assassins' influence. These new forces sought to eliminate any potential threats to their power, resulting in a decline in the political importance of the Assassins.
Another important factor contributing to the disappearance of the Assassin sect was the shift in geopolitical alliances during the 13th century. The Assassins had previously allied with the Crusaders against their common enemies, the Sunni Muslims. However, as the Crusaders' presence in the region waned, the Assassins lost their strategic allies. This shift left them isolated and vulnerable, further accelerating their decline.
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