Who was Saladin?

Salah ad-Din (also spelled Salahaddin or Salah ad-Din) was a 12th-century Muslim leader, military commander, and sultan of Syria and Egypt. Known in Europe as Saladin, his full name was al-Malik al-Nasir Salah al-Dunya wa'l-Din Abu'l Muzaffar Yusuf Ibn Ayyub Ibn Shadi al-Kurdi. "Salah ad-Din" is an honorary title meaning "The Righteousness of the Faith". In simpler terms, his given name was Yusuf ibn Ayyub. He was born in 1138 in Tikrit and passed away on March 4, 1193, in Damascus.

Portrait of Saladin, Sultan of Egypt and Syria, © The Trustees of the British Museum, released as CC BY-NC-SA 4.0

By origin, Salah ad-Din was a Kurd, although there is an alternate view suggesting he was an Arab who lived among the Kurds. He went on to establish the Ayyubid dynasty, which ruled during a period when Egypt, Syria, Iraq, Yemen, and the Hijaz reached their peak.

Early Life of Saladin

Information about Saladin's childhood is scarce; nevertheless, several sources claim that during his youth, he was highly knowledgeable in the Quran and the sciences of religion. The loss of Jerusalem during the First Crusade was a powerful catalyst for Saladin's deepening interest in faith. The desecration of sacred sites and the displacement of Muslim communities ignited in him a profound sense of injustice.

Surrounded by the remnants of a once-glorious Islamic civilization, Saladin would have felt a compelling need to understand, preserve, and revitalize his people's cultural and religious identity. In his youth, he likely drew inspiration from the stories of resilience and resistance demonstrated by his forebears during the Crusades. Saladin began his military journey under the guidance of his paternal uncle Shirkuh, a distinguished military commander serving under Nur ad-Din, the ruler of Aleppo and Damascus, who governed the Syrian province of the Seljuk Empire.

"Saladin the Victorious" Engraving by Gustave Doré, 19th century.

At the age of 26, Saladin participated in his uncle's military campaign to liberate Cairo. Shirkuh played a key role in restoring the authority of the Egyptian vizier Shawar, while simultaneously planning the eventual conquest of the region’s territories. Shirkuh's forces took refuge in the fortress of Belbeis, which soon came under siege by enemy forces. During these battles, Saladin sharpened his military skills and developed his ability to think strategically.

After enduring a three-month siege at Belbeis, Shawar's forces, along with their Crusader allies, retreated into the desert west of Giza. Saladin took command of the army's right-wing and, after a fierce and bloody battle, succeeded in defeating the enemy. Although Shirkuh emerged victorious, the battle came at a great personal cost, with significant losses among his forces.

The surviving Crusaders retreated to Egypt's capital, while Saladin and Shirkuh established themselves in Alexandria. Four years later, the Crusaders agreed to leave Egypt. The following year, Shawar was captured and executed by Shirkuh's forces, and Saladin assumed his position.

Saladin unified the Muslim world

After Nur ad-Din's death in May 1174, the coalition of Muslim states began to fracture. It was during this period of unrest that Saladin emerged as a prominent leader, claiming to be Nur ad-Din's rightful heir. At the time, Saladin had already achieved the remarkable feat of taking control of Egypt, an accomplishment that seemed almost unimaginable.

Following his ascent as the sultan of Egypt, Saladin captured Damascus later in 1174. He positioned himself as the protector of Sunni Orthodoxy, a role that gained legitimacy when he ended the Shiite caliphate in Cairo. This decisive move bolstered his claim as a unifying figure, earning him widespread acceptance as a protector of Sunni Islam. Saladin then worked to unify the Muslim world or, at the very least, forge a strong coalition to resist external threats.

Given the numerous city rulers and independent states, unifying them was an arduous task at the outset. However, Saladin was known for his perseverance and determination. To forge his coalition, he relied on a combination of diplomacy and military strength. In 1175, he won a decisive battle at Hama, further solidifying his position. Despite the challenges, Saladin continued to confront and overcome various battles, gradually building his influence.

Another key factor in Saladin's rise to power was his recognition by the Caliph of Baghdad, who appointed him as the governor of Yemen, Egypt, and Syria. However, Aleppo remained independent, still ruled by Nur ad-Din's son. This posed significant diplomatic challenges, as the young ruler of Aleppo caused considerable trouble for Saladin’s efforts to consolidate his power.

After the Sultan of Egypt survived two attacks, Saladin responded by launching an assault on the Masyaf Assassin fortress. Not only did he defeat them, but he also raided the surrounding area, which was a significant accomplishment for the time.

Battle between Baldwin IV and Saladin's Egyptians, November 18, 1177.

However, Saladin was not solely focused on warfare. He often preferred to resolve conflicts through diplomacy. To strengthen his position, he married Nur ad-Din's widow and later wed Unur's daughter, aligning himself with two of the most important ruling dynasties of the era.

The Franks defeated Saladin at the Battle of Montgisard in 1177. However, Saladin later captured a fortress in Jordan and achieved a victory in 1179 at the Battle of Montgisard. Through these actions, he demonstrated his resolve to expel Western powers from the Middle East, a goal that earned him significant support during that period.

Saladin was also known for his character and how he interacted with others. He was deeply committed to bringing justice and was renowned for his generosity. Furthermore, he earned the reputation of being the defender of Islam, particularly in opposition to the Christians. His stature grew even more in 1183 when he captured Aleppo. To further strengthen his position, Saladin established an Egyptian fleet to prepare for any potential attacks from Christian forces.

Drawing of the Battle of Hattin between Muslims and Crusaders.

By 1185, Saladin had gained full control of Mosul and signed a treaty with the Byzantine Empire to unite against the Seljuks, who were a threat to both empires. Given the shared challenges, it was clear why Saladin sought to eliminate them. Around this time, disputes over who would rule Jerusalem intensified, while the Franks were preoccupied with various conflicts. In April 1187, the Franks attacked the castle of Kerak, which was under the command of Saladin’s son. In response, Saladin began amassing a massive army, drawing forces from Jazira, Aleppo, Syria, and Egypt. The Franks, too, raised their army, and the two sides eventually clashed at the Battle of Hattin.

Saladin's Conquest of Jerusalem

At the beginning of July, mounted archers launched attacks on the Franks, then retreated, ensuring they harassed the Crusader forces. On July 4th of that year, Saladin initiated a much larger assault. He commanded around 20,000 troops in the Battle of Hattin, facing the Crusaders led by Guy of Lusignan, the King of Jerusalem. The Crusader forces numbered approximately 1,300 knights and 15,000 infantry, meaning Saladin’s army had a clear numerical advantage. Additionally, the Franks were severely lacking in water and other essential supplies, further weakening their position.

Imaginary portrait of Guy of Lusignan

Saladin's army set the dry grass on fire, further worsening the Franks' already dire situation. Raymond of Tripoli and his cavalry managed to break through Saladin’s forces for a time, but the rest of the Crusader army had nowhere to retreat. This tactical move played a pivotal role in Saladin’s massive victory at Hattin.

Following the battle, some captured nobles were released in exchange for ransom, including Guy of Lusignan. However, others, such as Reynald of Chatillon, were executed. The Knights Hospitaller and Knights Templar also met the same fate.

In September 1187, Saladin captured Jerusalem, which was largely undefended by that point. While most churches were converted into mosques, the Christians living on the eastern side of the city were allowed to remain. Saladin’s conquest did not stop there; he went on to capture Caesarea, Jaffa, Nazareth, Tiberias, Acre, and several other important cities.

The Third Crusade and Saladin's Death

Saladin’s conquest of Jerusalem in 1187 sparked the call for a new Holy War against the Christians. Pope Gregory VIII issued a call for a Crusade with the goal of reclaiming the city. In response, the kings of Germany, England, and France allied to challenge Saladin’s control over Jerusalem. They joined forces with Guy of Lusignan, the former King of Jerusalem, and launched an attempt to recapture Saladin's territories through a series of military campaigns.

Lithograph of fortifications around Acre, 1819. Taken from Louis Nicolas Philippe Auguste, Voyage dans le Levant (1819)

The Crusader army eventually captured Acre in July 1191, along with 70 ships from Saladin’s fleet. Following this victory, they advanced south toward Jerusalem. In September 1191, a major battle took place on the plains of Arsuf. The Crusaders emerged victorious, but Saladin's forces did not suffer significant losses. Despite this, the loss of key cities like Arsuf, Acre, and Jaffa dealt a blow to Saladin's reputation and weakened his position in the ongoing conflict.

Although the Crusaders captured several towns, Saladin managed to acquire a significant number of valuable artifacts. However, he did not benefit much from their departure, as he passed away on March 4, 1193, at the age of 56. It is speculated that his death was the result of the toll taken by years of intense campaigning. Despite successfully creating a coalition of Muslim states, the alliance was fragile, and it quickly disbanded after his death.

Ayyubid dynasty battle scene, Fustat, Cairo, Egypt, 12-13th century CE

Saladin is widely recognized for founding the Ayyubid dynasty, which ruled Syria until 1260 and Egypt until 1250, when both regions were taken by the Mamluks. Beyond his military achievements, Saladin also left a lasting legacy in the world of literature. His diplomatic acumen and leadership skills have been the subject of numerous books and studies. Many people continue to respect and admire his work, particularly his unique ability to govern and control such diverse regions throughout his life.