What Happened After the Death of Alexander the Great?

In 12 years of Alexander the Great's reign, the small kingdom of Macedonia transformed into a vast empire, connecting different parts of the world and continents. Such unprecedented success was a complete surprise even to the Macedonians themselves. Many times, they thought they had reached their limit. But instead of turning home, Alexander led them further, conquering even more. And when the circle was complete, and the Macedonians returned from India to Babylon, an even more unexpected event occurred.

The Death of Alexander the Great after the painting by Karl von Piloty

In 323 BCE, the chief architect of success died at the peak of his achievements at only 32. He didn’t even manage to leave an heir to the throne. And so, ordinary army commanders, the king's friends, and fortunate warriors saw an opportunity to become, no less, rulers of the known world. Moreover, they fully understood that the same thought had occurred to their former comrades-in-arms.

The very moment Alexander left them, friends turned into enemies. Too much was at stake. Only a few could have shown restraint and caution in such a situation. A great battle for a great legacy was about to unfold.

Who were the main Diadochi?

Perdiccas. He belonged to a noble family and served as a bodyguard even under Alexander’s father, Philip. During the campaigns, he rose to the rank of cavalry commander. Unexpectedly, he became the first contender for power after the dying Alexander handed him his signet ring. This was the only action by the king that could be interpreted as the choice of a successor.

Antigonus the One-Eyed and his son Demetrius. He was one of the main generals under Philip and later under Alexander. After the first victories over the Persians, Alexander appointed him as the governor of Phrygia in Asia Minor, where Antigonus also distinguished himself by crushing the last pockets of resistance.

Alexander deathbed Hellenic Institute codex 5 f. 193v (Alexander Romance recension gamma)

Antipater and his son Cassander. Another close associate of Philip. He did not participate in the campaigns, as he was initially appointed as the governor of the most important province, Macedonia.

Ptolemy. He was one of Alexander's closest friends from a young age. Among all the contenders for power, he stood out for his greatest prudence and caution.

Lysimachus. He was distinguished and elevated by Alexander during the campaigns, impressing the king with his physical strength and bravery.

Seleucus. By the time of the Indian campaign, he had become the commander of one of the royal guard units — the Silver Shields. After Alexander's death, he was not considered a contender for even a single province. The underestimation of his abilities by his rivals later worked to his advantage.

What was the main problem for the Diadochi?

The main problem for the orphaned Diadochi was determining Alexander's successor. His wife, Roxana, was pregnant. The king himself, during his lifetime, took care to ensure that no relatives who could theoretically challenge his authority were left alive. His father Philip had several wives, and Alexander ordered the execution of his brothers, including those with questionable parentage. He spared only Philip Arrhidaeus, who suffered from mental illness.

Alexander also had a son, Heracles, by a concubine who lived in Pergamum, but due to his lowly origin, the Diadochi did not consider him a legitimate successor. The generals also had to take into account the opinion of the army. Macedonian soldiers were unwilling to recognize Roxana's child as the new king. This was a long-standing issue: Alexander had faced harsh criticism for marrying a woman of barbarian origin. Now, with her only protector dead, Roxana's position was extremely precarious. The council in Babylon lasted several days in a very tense atmosphere. Participants occasionally reached for their weapons, preparing to defend their positions.

Roxana with Alexander IV Aegus, the son of Alexander the Great

After lengthy debates, the generals decided that, in the event of the birth of a boy, he and Philip Arrhidaeus would become co-rulers. This eventually came to pass. Perdiccas was to become the regent for Roxana's child and the commander-in-chief of the army. The new provinces, or satrapies, were allocated among the Diadochi for administration. Antipater remained in Macedonia, Lysimachus received Thrace, Antigonus — central Asia Minor, and Ptolemy — Egypt. Seleucus, who had received little attention at the time, got nothing and was content with the position of cavalry commander in Perdiccas's army.

The Diadochi were very different in terms of their origin, social status, age, and experience. Consequently, their views on the future of the state varied significantly. Some, like Antigonus, wanted to preserve Alexander's empire, while others, like Ptolemy, supported the separation of their regions. Some supported Alexander's eastern policy, like Perdiccas, while others adhered to conservative views, like Antipater.

In analyzing the reasons for the empire's collapse and the forty years of the Diadochi wars, it would be overly simplistic to assert that the satraps were driven solely by greed. The desire for power was natural for the Diadochi due to their military and political roles. They would not have reached such career heights without being ambitious and vain. However, each of them also possessed an exceptional intellect and was exceptionally brave, otherwise, they would not have earned Alexander's favor.

The personal ambitions of the Diadochi were compounded by internal political circumstances. The Macedonians had subjugated numerous lands and peoples with different ways of life, religious cults, and traditions. For them to continue peaceful coexistence within a single state, a unifying idea and strong central authority were needed. It is far from certain that if Alexander had left a successor, the empire would not have disintegrated. Only someone whose authority was immeasurably higher than their own could have kept the commanders from separatist tendencies, but there was no obvious leader among the Diadochi.

Alexander's companions not only fought among themselves but also managed their territories. They did not confine themselves to the lands Alexander had conquered and continued to expand his former possessions in all directions, except perhaps India. Ptolemy captured Cyrenaica, the Macedonian rulers fought against Epirus, and Eumenes completed the conquest of Cappadocia. Pontus, Armenia, and even Carthage — all these were within the sphere of interest of the Diadochi.

Wars between the Diadochi

Having dispersed to their respective territories, the regent and the satraps closely and extremely jealously monitored each other's actions. Any success was seen as a claim to increased power. In such a tense atmosphere, it took only a small spark for the first war to erupt, thinning the ranks of the Diadochi.

Perdiccas, who was already betrothed to Antipater's daughter, planned to marry Alexander's sister Cleopatra. Her mother, Olympias, who was also seeking power, actively supported this decision. Thus, Perdiccas would have connected himself with the royal family and been one step away from declaring himself king. This alliance was primarily against Antipater, whose kinship Perdiccas thus disregarded. Additionally, Olympias was hostile toward the Macedonian satrap and was quick to seek retribution. If she had gained power in Macedonia, Antipater would have been the first victim.

Cassander ordering the death of Olympias by Jean-Joseph Taillasson

To oppose the regent, he allied with Ptolemy and Craterus, one of the most popular Macedonian generals. Perdiccas decided to first deal with Ptolemy. Antipater and Craterus, who had advanced into Asia Minor, were to be confronted by Eumenes, the satrap of Cappadocia, allied with the regent. In this first war, characteristic features of the subsequent Diadochi conflicts emerged: constant defections of satraps from one camp to another, as well as strained relations between generals and their soldiers. Refusals by satraps to follow orders and soldiers' reluctance to fight against their own were common. For example, the satrap of Armenia, Neoptolemus, was supposed to obey Eumenes but refused, was defeated by Eumenes, and defected to Craterus. Soon, both were unexpectedly defeated by Eumenes, who personally killed Neoptolemus. Craterus fell in the same battle.

At the same time, Perdiccas's campaign against Egypt was unfolding in Asia Minor. However, he failed to support his ally's success. The campaign ended in complete failure. Perdiccas had more soldiers than Ptolemy, but Ptolemy had organized his defense well, and the regent's army was unable to cross the Nile. Outraged by the general's actions, the soldiers stormed Perdiccas's tent and killed him. Among the assassins was his cavalry commander, Seleucus.

The death of Perdiccas and Craterus necessitated a new council of the Diadochi, which took place in 321 BC in the town of Triparadis in Syria. The new regent was the 77-year-old Antipater. Eumenes, who had previously fought against him, was deprived of Cappadocia. On the other hand, Seleucus joined the ranks of the satraps and was given control of Babylon.

The next target was to be Eumenes, who was left alone after Perdiccas's death. Antipater assigned Antigonus to deal with him and sent reinforcements to his army. However, Eumenes resisted for several years. The old Antipater died two years after the council at Triparadis and passed his powers not to his son Cassander, but to another general, Polyperchon. Outraged by this, Cassander immediately began a war against Polyperchon, and Eumenes could have counted on an alliance with the new regent. Since he was Greek, he could not claim the Macedonian throne and was thus not a threat to Polyperchon. However, standing in the way of Macedonia was Antigonus’s army, which ultimately pursued Eumenes to Susiana in southern Iran. In the decisive battle, Eumenes had more warriors, but some of them defected to Antigonus and betrayed their commander.

The Fall of Alexander's Dynasty

Dramatic events unfolded in the Balkans, where Alexander's relatives clashed in a fierce struggle. Pressed by Cassander, Polyperchon took refuge in Epirus, where his ally became Olympias. Together with him, she returned to Macedonia. There, as the mother of the great king, she was initially received with favor.

Once in power, Olympias took revenge on those who had previously supported her enemy Antipater. Besides her, Polyperchon's authority was bolstered by his protection of Roxana and the young Alexander. However, Cassander also received support from the royal family. On his side was Eurydice, the granddaughter of Philip through another wife, the Illyrian princess Audata.

Alexander the Great and Roxana, a 1756 painting by Pietro Rotari.

To strengthen her claims to power, Eurydice married Alexander’s brother, Philip Arrhidaeus. In one of the battles, the forces led by the two women, Eurydice and Olympias, clashed. Olympias's influence was still strong, so Eurydice’s soldiers defected to her side. Philip Arrhidaeus and his wife were captured by Olympias and executed. However, despite her considerable authority, Olympias alienated the Macedonians with her constant repression.

Polyperchon failed to gather enough forces to resist, and Cassander took control of Macedonia. Abandoned by everyone, Olympias was forced to surrender. Cassander also took possession of Polyperchon's wards. Olympias was executed immediately, by the hands of those whose relatives she had ordered to be killed. Roxana and her son remained in Cassander's custody for another six years. During this time, neither the Macedonians nor the other Diadochi made any attempt to free them.

It was clear that the presence of an heir had become a burden for the Diadochi. They no longer wanted an empire under the rule of the Argead dynasty. In 309 BC, Roxana and her son were killed on Cassander’s orders. The fate of Alexander's sister, Cleopatra, was no different. After Perdiccas, all the Diadochi had courted her in turn. When she finally agreed to marry Ptolemy, she was killed on Antigonus's orders.

The tragic fate also befell Alexander's other son, Heracles. Clinging to the royal dynasty as a means to power, Polyperchon continued the war against Cassander and called upon the 18-year-old Heracles to join him. However, the forces were unequal. Even Polyperchon's son defected to Cassander’s side. Cassander took advantage of the situation and offered peace in exchange for Heracles's life, to which Polyperchon agreed. Thus, the dynasty that had ruled Macedonia for 400 years was extinguished.