Battle of Gaugamela

On October 1, 331 BC, a decisive battle took place between the armies of Alexander the Great and the Persian king Darius III. The latter was defeated, and the Achaemenid Empire ceased to exist. Ancient authors often refer to Arbela instead of Gaugamela. Only Plutarch specifically mentions Gaugamela. Just like at Issus, the victory at Gaugamela stands as evidence of Alexander the Great's calculated risk-taking and exceptional strategic abilities, as he set out to conquer the world at the age of twenty.

Alexander the Great, victorious over Darius at the battle of Gaugamela

Battle Background

After defeating the Persians at the Battle of Granicus and in the Battle of Issus, Alexander delivered a crushing blow to the army of Darius III. He then went on to capture Phoenicia, Syria, and Egypt. This was necessary because Alexander wanted to destroy the powerful Persian fleet in the Mediterranean Sea.

While Alexander was still in Phoenicia, Darius attempted to make peace with him. In his first letter to the Macedonian conqueror, Darius asked Alexander to release his mother, wife, and children for ransom and also proposed an alliance. Furthermore, the Persian king reminded Alexander that it was Macedonia that had broken the peace and caused much harm to the Persians, forcing Darius to defend the land inherited from his ancestors. The letter struck Alexander with its arrogance. Darius wrote haughtily, referring to himself as the only king and advising Alexander to be content with just Macedonia.

Alexander at the altar fire on the eve of the battle of Gaugamela by Andre Castaigne (1898-1899)

Such an attitude enraged Alexander. According to another version, Darius offered not ransom for his family but lands in Asia Minor. However, by that time, Alexander's ambitions had significantly grown, so during a meeting with his companions, Alexander did not mention Darius' offer.

Be that as it may, Alexander responded to the Persian king's letter with a sharp refusal. He accused Darius of instigating war in Greece and unjust treatment of his subjects. To get his family back, Darius had to come to Alexander, acknowledge him as his lord, and take his place among the courtiers.

Such conditions were unacceptable for the "King of Kings", and the negotiations reached a deadlock. Soon, however, Alexander received a new letter from Darius. He promised the Macedonian king a ransom of ten thousand talents of silver for his family, as well as Asia Minor, Syria, Phoenicia, Palestine, Egypt, and the hand of one of his daughters.

Upon receiving such a generous offer, Alexander called his companions together for another council. According to ancient sources, Parmenion stated that if he were Alexander, he would accept Darius' terms and end the war. Alexander replied that if he were Parmenion, he would do just that, but since he was Alexander, he would act differently.

In his reply, the Macedonian king informed Darius that he did not need his money or lands, as all of Asia already belonged to him alone. If he wished to marry Darius' daughter, he would do so without the Persian ruler's consent. Darius was once again commanded to appear without delay. Upon receiving such a message, Darius realized that diplomatic options were exhausted and began intensively preparing for a new round of hostilities.

Alexander's March to Gaugamela

The Persian king was not mistaken about Alexander's intentions. Leaving Egypt in the summer of 331 BC, Alexander's army did indeed move towards Syria and soon reached the city of Thapsacus, located on the Euphrates River. A 6,000-strong Persian detachment under the command of the satrap of Mesopotamia and Babylonia, Mazaeus, guarded the crossing near the settlement. Hearing of Alexander's approach, Mazaeus hastily withdrew and began ravaging the territory on the eastern bank of the Euphrates. At the crossing itself, the satrap left no forces behind, allowing Alexander to cross the river easily.

Alexander the Great is portrayed at the Battle of Gaugamela (331 BCE) on a mosaic found on the floor of the House of the Faun in Pompeii. He is astride his famous horse Bucephalos and wears a breastplate decorated with the head of Medusa.

After crossing the Euphrates, Alexander did not head directly to Babylon but took the northern route along the mountain ranges. The local climate could have been more exhausting for his troops, and securing supplies was easier. Additionally, Alexander suspected that Darius had already assembled a significant army and was planning to attack him from the rear.

However, the route chosen by the Macedonian king also had its drawbacks. His army had to cross another major river, the Tigris. However, the crossing of the Tigris was also unguarded. By the time one of the Persian reconnaissance patrols approached the Macedonian camp, Alexander had already completed the river crossing. Taking with him a squadron of Hetairoi, the Macedonian king quickly defeated the Persian horsemen. From the prisoners, he learned that Darius had camped with a huge army not far away, Gaugamela fortified.

However, before Alexander could advance to confront the enemy, he and his troops witnessed a lunar eclipse. Since such events held significant sacred meaning in ancient times, the Greeks and Macedonians were frightened by the ominous omen. The situation was salvaged by Egyptian priests, who reassured the troops by interpreting the eclipse as a favorable sign that foretold the destruction of the Persians. After some time, having restored discipline among his troops, Alexander advanced against Darius.

Disposition of the Troops

In September 331 BC, the Greek-Macedonian army approached Gaugamela and took a defensive position on a hill opposite the Persian army. The King of Kings had learned from his mistakes two years earlier and was well-prepared for a new confrontation with the enemy. By utilizing the vast resources of his empire, Darius was able to assemble a large army, which included both the inhabitants of the satrapies under his control and representatives of tribes allied with Persia.

Ancient sources once again greatly exaggerate the total size of the Persian army, giving figures ranging from 200,000 to one million warriors under Darius' command. Most likely, the actual numbers were significantly lower — around 100,000 infantry and 15,000 cavalry. The Greek-Macedonian army under Alexander, which opposed them, at that time, consisted of 40,000 infantry and 8,000 cavalry.

Battle of Gaugamela, 331 BC - Initial dispositions and opening movements

Wishing to take advantage of his numerical superiority this time, Darius chose a broad plain as the battlefield, where the Persian army could potentially surround and destroy the smaller enemy force. Additionally, Darius ordered the terrain to be leveled as much as possible to make it more suitable for the use of 200 scythed chariots, which were intended to sow chaos among the enemy infantry.

Alexander and his commanders fully understood the consequences that a battle with the Persians on open ground could bring. According to the chroniclers, during the military council in Alexander's tent, Parmenion suggested a night attack, but the king refused, stating that he did not intend to steal the victory. Alexander had other reasons to refuse a night battle. In the darkness, he wouldn't have been able to utilize his tactical skills, and engaging a numerically superior enemy while relying only on luck would have been unwise.

After finishing the preparations, Alexander withdrew to his tent. It is believable that he felt a deep anxiety about the upcoming battle. The question of control over the Middle East, and likely his own life, was at stake. In the end, Alexander fell asleep so deeply that the next morning he was difficult to wake. Parmenion himself came to his tent with reproaches, either for losing his vigor or for excessive self-confidence. Alexander replied that now, with Darius having agreed to fight, there was nothing to fear.

When the Greek-Macedonian army began descending from the hill to take their positions, the Persians were already arrayed. Fearing a night attack, Darius kept his army in battle formation all night, which greatly exhausted his troops. He positioned his most capable infantry — a 10,000-strong unit of the Immortals and Greek mercenaries — in the center of the formation. However, the main strength of the Persian army lay in its cavalry. The cavalry from the inner Persian regions, along with the king's guard, were concentrated in the center. On the left flank, the king stationed Bactrians and Scythians under the command of the satrap of Bactria, Bessus, while on the right flank were cavalry from Syria and Mesopotamia under the command of Mazaeus. 200 chariots took their positions in front of the formation, intended to initiate the battle for Darius. The numerous Persian infantry took positions behind the main forces.

Trying to make it difficult for Darius to deliver flank attacks, Alexander positioned his army at a slight angle to the enemy. To the right of the phalanx were the Greek cavalry, commanded personally by Alexander. The allied and Thessalian cavalry under Parmenion was positioned on the left wing. Additionally, the king reinforced his flanks with light infantry and placed another line of allied and mercenary infantry behind them. This line was intended to hold off the Persians if they broke through to the rear.

Battle of Gaugamela

The Persian army was arrayed across a much wider front. However, the Macedonian king did not abandon his favored tactic of attacking with the cavalry on the right flank. This time, the king led his cavalry slightly to one side, distancing them from the main forces. The Bactrians and Scythians, concentrated by Darius on this flank, began to replicate Alexander's maneuver. Watching the events with surprise, Darius, after some time, ordered to halt Alexander's further advance, and a bloody cavalry battle began on the right flank.

The Macedonian cavalry faced a tough challenge. The armored Scythians proved to be worthy opponents. Alexander sent squadrons into battle one after another, but Darius' cavalry steadfastly resisted the Greek cavalry's assault.

The Battle of Gaugamela

At this moment, the Persian king sent his scythed chariots into battle. Despite their ominous reputation and intimidating appearance, by the end of the 4th century BC, chariots had become outdated, and all the peoples of the Eastern Mediterranean knew how to counter them. This was indeed the case at the Battle of Gaugamela: Macedonian infantry simply opened their ranks and let the chariots pass through, striking the charioteers' horses with long spears, while light infantrymen pelted them with javelins. Some chariots managed to breach the first line of infantry, but they were subsequently surrounded and immobilized by Alexander's reserve forces.

While the Macedonians fought against Darius' chariots, the satrap Mazaeus, leading the Persian cavalry on the right flank, struck at Parmenion's units. The experienced Macedonian commander had previously withstood the assault of a superior enemy, but this time the situation was much worse. Mazaeus was able to push Parmenion back, and the gap that opened between the cavalry and the phalanx was filled by Indian contingents. They did not attempt to attack the phalanx from the rear but instead surged across the field toward the Macedonian camp. However, they were quickly repelled by Alexander's reserve units. At the same time, Mazaeus continued to press the cavalry, and Parmenion, sensing the looming threat to his flank, sent a messenger to Alexander requesting assistance.

At this time, on the right flank, the Macedonian cavalry began to gain the upper hand over the Bactrians and Scythians. To counter Alexander's advance, Darius sent the Persian cavalry units from the center to support his left flank. This decision proved fatal: when the Persian cavalry left their positions to assist the Bactrians, a weak point developed in the middle of their formation. Alexander immediately directed his decisive strike at this vulnerable spot. Taking several squadrons of cavalry from the right flank, he charged in front of the advancing phalanx, drawing them into an attack at the very center of the Persian formation, where Darius was stationed. At that moment, only the king's guard and a few Greek mercenaries remained around him, and thus the Macedonian Hetairoi pierced the weakened Persian lines.

Battle of Gaugamela with the Macedonians led by Alexander the Great on the left and the Persians led by King Darius III on the right.

Realizing the imminent danger, Darius did as he did at Issus: he fled the battlefield, setting an example for his army. Meanwhile, the Persian resistance on the right flank was finally broken, and the Hetairoi charged after the fleeing Persians. Apparently, at that moment, a messenger from Parmenion reached Alexander, who had been fending off the attacking cavalry of Mazaeus. Due to the cloud of dust that had risen over the battlefield, the satrap was unaware of the flight of the rest of the Persian army for a long time. However, upon receiving news of what was happening, Mazaeus' pressure lost its force, and his cavalry hastened to leave the battlefield. By the time Alexander arrived to aid Parmenion, the main threat had already passed. The Thessalians, having heroically withstood the Persian cavalry's assault, themselves took the initiative, pursuing the fleeing enemy.

The Battle of Gaugamela was Alexander's greatest military success. By employing unconventional tactical decisions, he managed to defeat a numerically superior opponent in an open field. The only thing Alexander did not achieve was capturing the Persian king. Macedonian soldiers later found his chariot and weapons in the Persian camp.

Determining the actual level of casualties in the Battle of Gaugamela is extremely difficult. According to ancient sources, Alexander lost only 100 men in the battle and 1,000 horses, half of which belonged to the Hetairoi. The damage to the Persian side is reported in the hundreds of thousands. Such exaggerations reflect not so much the magnitude of the losses but the battle's significance.