Battle of the Granicus
- Davit Grigoryan
- Mar 6
- 9 min read
Updated: Mar 15
In the spring of 334 BCE, Alexander the Great crossed the Hellespont with his army into Asia Minor to conquer the Persian Empire. At the Granicus River, he was met by the Persian army of the satraps of Asia Minor and Greek mercenaries fighting on the side of the Persian King Darius. This was the first major battle in which the Macedonians were to face the Persians.
Background of the Battle of The Granicus
In the 330 BC, Macedonia was at the peak of its military and political power. During his 23 years of rule, the Macedonian king Philip II transformed the once backward country into a hegemonic power in the Greek world. By subjugating the barbarian tribes neighboring Macedonia and decisively defeating his Greek opponents at the Battle of Chaeronea, Philip declared the formation of the Corinthian League, which united all the Greeks in a pan-Hellenic campaign against the Persian Empire. However, Philip was not destined to see the results of his efforts. In 336 BC, the Macedonian king was assassinated at the height of his glory.
When Philip died, Philip's son, Alexander, was recognized as the heir to the royal crown. His rise to power faced no significant opposition. However, Alexander inherited not just the throne and the Macedonian army but also his father's plans, with the Persian campaign being the foremost among them. Alexander undoubtedly longed to prove himself in action, but for the moment, other pressing matters demanded his attention, preventing him from immediately crossing the Hellespont.
Alexander's rise to power sparked rebellions among the Greek city-states and barbarian nations on the borders of Macedonia. The new king needed to prove himself, particularly in the south, where the Athenian orator Demosthenes, a staunch opponent of Philip, enthusiastically portrayed Alexander as a foolish boy incapable of anything. The new king quickly suppressed the resistance in Thessaly by outflanking the Thessalians who had blocked his path via a mountain trail. The Thessalians quickly reconsidered and acknowledged Alexander as the head of the Thessalian League, a position that had previously belonged to his father.
The uprising that had flared up among the Thebans, Athenians, and Spartans was quelled by Alexander's arrival in Greece, where he convened the assembly of the Corinthian League. The assembly confirmed Alexander's leadership of the League and expressed their willingness to recognize him as the commander of the upcoming pan-Hellenic campaign. Only Sparta refused to join the alliance and publicly acknowledge Macedonian suzerainty. However, Alexander decided to leave Sparta alone, considering his position in Greece sufficiently secure, and set out for the north.
In addition to the Greeks, the rise of Alexander to the throne also alarmed the Thracian tribes, who conspired to attack Macedonia in conjunction with the Triballi. However, he quickly dealt with his opponents and, making a rapid march into Thrace, defeated the local tribes. The Macedonian king then moved north. After also crushing the Triballi, their king, Syrus, fled from the Macedonians and took refuge on an island in the Danube.
After failing in his attempt to cross the island, Alexander changed his approach and attacked another local tribe, the Getae. Learning of the events unfolding in Thrace, the Getae gathered on the opposite side of the Danube, apparently considering their positions impregnable. However, with his characteristic determination, Alexander assembled a fleet of boats and, under the cover of night, crossed the water barrier with a small detachment. Such a bold river crossing took the Getae completely by surprise. Alexander quickly brought the Getae to submission, and soon after, the Triballi also ceased their resistance.
The last target for Alexander in this region was the Illyrian tribes. They were also unable to offer serious resistance to the Macedonian king. However, while Alexander was instilling fear among the Illyrians, a rebellion flared up again in Greece. Alexander's active campaigns in the north provided a basis for rumors about the young king's death—false, but deliberately spread. In the spring of 335 BC, the Thebans besieged the garrison left by Philip in their acropolis. The Athenians also began preparing for resistance.
Alexander's reaction was swift and brutal. Within two weeks, he was already at the walls of Thebes. The Macedonians hoped to still negotiate with the Athenians, but they responded with refusal, so Alexander dealt with them accordingly. Thebes was taken by storm. Resistance in the streets of the city was brutally suppressed, and the captured Thebans (about 30,000 in total) were sold into slavery, resulting in the king earning 440 talents of silver. However, to avoid accusations of senseless cruelty, Alexander presented the destruction of Thebes and the enslavement of its population as punishment for the Thebans and Boeotians, who had been hostile to Athens.
Be that as it may, the example of Thebes was sufficient to spread more submissive sentiments throughout the rest of Greece. Having dealt with all the issues in Greece and Thrace, Alexander was finally able to lead his troops into Persia.
Macedonian Army
The army that Alexander gathered for the campaign was by no means monolithic in ethnic terms. The core was the Macedonian army, but it was also joined by contingents sent by vassal tribes along the borders of Macedonia: Agrians, Triballi, Illyrians, and others. Alexander was the head of the Corinthian League, and therefore the Greek states provided him with contingents of infantry and cavalry. Finally, the number of troops increased with a significant number of mercenaries.
Considering the centuries-old enmity between representatives of different peoples in the army and the fact that many groups were unable to communicate with each other due to the language barrier, the fact that the command managed to maintain order and prevent the emergence of open ethnic conflicts deserves special mention. When in 334 BC Alexander approached the Hellespont, he had at his disposal 12,000 Macedonian phalangites, 9,000 light infantry, and 3,000 hypaspists (literally shield-bearers), as well as Greek heavy infantry.
The infantrymen armed with sarissas formed the core of the Macedonian phalanx. As a rule, the ranks of the phalanx were arranged tightly in groups of 16 men, with each warrior occupying about one square meter. During reformation, the spears were held vertically to avoid obstructing movement. Lowering the spears was allowed only before engaging with the enemy, with whom they sometimes had to come into direct contact, occasionally even running.
Unlike the light infantry recruited from commoners, the hypaspists were elite troops made up of select warriors chosen for their individual qualities, primarily their physical attributes and bravery. The king often used them for special missions that required exceptional speed and endurance.
In addition to the Macedonian infantry, Alexander had about 7,000 Greek allies and approximately 5,000 mercenary infantry. Throughout the campaign, there was a continuous influx of reinforcements. Little is known about the light infantry in Alexander's army. However, they were formed from contingents of northern tribes and mercenaries.
The core of the cavalry units formed by the hypaspists, whose numbers reached 1,800 men. As the most prestigious regiment in the army, the hypaspists held a distinguished position on the right flank of the formation. The left flank was usually held by the Thessalian cavalry. The personnel of this unit were drawn from the aristocracy of Thessaly, and therefore it included the most skilled horsemen in the Greek world. The Greek states within the Corinthian League were also required to provide certain cavalry units for the needs of the expeditionary forces. Finally, the army of Alexander included 4 squadrons of Thracian light cavalry, which were reinforced by additional units of auxiliary Thracian cavalry.
The total number of Alexander’s troops varies significantly depending on the sources used. Modern historiography most commonly relies on the account of the ancient Greek historian Arrian, who wrote about 30,000 infantry and 5,000 cavalry under Alexander's command.
Battle of the Granicus
After a three-day march from his main army's location, Alexander reached the battlefield chosen by the Persians in May 334 BCE. By then, he was in a difficult position—his supplies were running low, and his debts were growing daily. A quick and decisive victory was the only way to turn the situation around. To increase his chances, Alexander left behind the Greek allied and mercenary troops at the Hellespont camp, as they were not trained for rapid marches.
As a result, Alexander's infantry was limited to the 12,000 men of the Macedonian contingent. However, he understood the Persians' military strengths and knew their main advantage was their cavalry. To counter this, he brought all the cavalry he had—around 5,000 horsemen.
The Persians deployed the troops they had readily available in Asia Minor to face Alexander. As usual, the satraps recruited up to 5,000 Greek mercenaries, relying on them for well-trained infantry. In addition to the Greeks, the Persian force likely included 10,000 to 15,000 light infantry from local tribes, though their combat effectiveness was questionable. However, the cavalry remained the strongest branch of the Persian military, and the satraps managed to gather more than 10,000 horsemen. With both sides having roughly equal numbers at the Battle of the Granicus, tactical skill among the commanders would be more crucial than ever.
Alexander deployed the Macedonian army in a formation stretching about 4 kilometers. He took position on the right flank, leading the Hetairoi, while the Thessalian cavalry, commanded by Parmenion, held the left flank.
On the opposite bank of the Granicus, the satraps arranged their troops in an unusual formation. The Greek mercenaries and the rest of the infantry were positioned farther from the river, while the Persian cavalry stood at the front. This suggests that the Persian commanders acknowledged their infantry's weakness and aimed to disrupt the Macedonian crossing with swift cavalry attacks.
The battle-ready troops of both armies stood in silence for a moment. Then, Alexander ordered the vanguard of Agrianian javelin throwers and one squadron of Hetairoi to cross the river on the right flank. The Persians responded quickly and forcefully, launching a barrage of javelins at the enemy. At the same time, some Persian troops entered the river, trying to prevent the Macedonians from reaching the shore. The advancing forces began to suffer heavy losses, and the vanguard became increasingly engaged in fierce combat with the stronger Persian cavalry led by Memnon and his sons.
By drawing more and more Persian cavalry from the opposite side of the Granicus, the vanguard created an opportunity for Alexander to execute a bolder cavalry maneuver. Leading the main force of Hetairoi into the water, Alexander directed them in a diagonal line to the right of the engaged vanguard. The formation moved in echelon, aiming to reach the right bank in relatively tight ranks. The subsequent swift attack by the Macedonian cavalry struck the main Persian forces, and soon, troops on both sides became entangled, causing the battle to shift into an infantry clash.
During the chaos and intense hand-to-hand fighting, the discipline and training of the Macedonian Hetairoi became more important. These qualities helped them gradually defeat the Persians by using their cavalry spears effectively. Alexander's horsemen targeted both enemy soldiers and horses, which disrupted the enemy's formations.
As ancient sources all agree, during the battle, Alexander came face to face with the satraps Mithridates, Rhesaces, and Spithridates. After striking down Mithridates, Alexander was hit on the helmet by Rhesaces, another satrap, whom he also managed to bring down with his spear. However, the impact caused Alexander's spear to break, and Rhesaces' blade pierced Alexander's helmet, giving him a temporary concussion. At that moment, Spithridates swung his kopis to deliver a fatal blow to the Macedonian king. Just in time, Klyt, the commander of the royal Hetairoi squadron, severed Spithridates' arm.
While Alexander and his Hetairoi fought the Persians on the Macedonian right flank, the infantry in the center began crossing the river as well. The Persian cavalry facing them was unable to stop the phalanxes armed with spears. When the Persians heard rumors of their commanders' deaths, they quickly abandoned their positions. At the same time, the Persian left flank began to collapse, and in a desperate bid to escape, the Persians turned their horses away from the river and fled the battlefield.
Instead of chasing the Persian cavalry, the Macedonians decided to deal with the Greek mercenaries left behind by the Persians. The heavily armored Greek hoplites found themselves unable to escape the Macedonian cavalry. In a hopeless situation, they begged Alexander for mercy. However, filled with anger from the battle, Alexander refused their request and launched a final attack. He may have made this decision to set an example for all Greek mercenaries serving with the Persians. Despite being outnumbered, the experienced and disciplined Greeks fought fiercely. The final victory was hard-earned for Alexander, and during this phase of the battle, the Macedonians suffered their heaviest losses. Meanwhile, the Greek detachment was destroyed, with about 2,000 men taken prisoner. They were sent in chains to Macedonia as slaves.
As a result of the clash, the damage to the Persian cavalry was minimal, as they were able to leave the battlefield without being pursued by Alexander's cavalry. On the other hand, the Greek mercenaries suffered the heaviest losses among the defeated forces. The losses on the Macedonian side were much lower; sources mention figures ranging from 30 to 120 dead, though this number is likely understated and does not include the wounded. After the battle, Alexander, as he had planned, entered Asia as the liberator of the Greek cities.
Comments