The Ottoman Empire in World War I: From Allies to Collapse
- Davit Grigoryan
- Oct 24
- 12 min read
By the early 20th century, the Ottoman Empire lived between the memory of its former greatness and the anxiety of what tomorrow might bring. Its vast territories were rapidly shrinking: behind it lay the defeats of the Italo-Turkish War and, even more painfully, the Balkan Wars, during which the empire lost nearly all its European lands and hundreds of thousands of subjects. Constantinople now stood closer than ever to the frontier.
The state itself was on the brink of exhaustion — the treasury was empty, the roads and railways were worn out, provincial administrations were steeped in corruption, and the army, in desperate need of reform, had neither the time nor the resources to rebuild.
The Revolution of 1908 brought to power the Committee of Union and Progress — the Young Turks, who promised modernization and the salvation of the state. Their vision rested on centralization, rapid military reform, economic protectionism, and a cautious national mobilization under the banner of Ottoman patriotism.
But reality proved resistant. Competing elites, the empire’s ethnic diversity, a chronic lack of investment, and its growing dependence on European creditors all hindered real change. After the catastrophe of the Balkan Wars, the new leaders found themselves under double pressure — from a society demanding revenge and order, and from a geopolitical landscape in which the empire was becoming an object rather than a player.
Meanwhile, Europe was drifting toward war: alliance blocs were hardening, and diplomacy was giving way to mobilization plans. In Constantinople, the government listened closely to every move from St. Petersburg, London, Vienna, and Berlin, weighing carefully who might become a threat — and who might serve as a lifeline.
Russia’s ambitions toward the straits were alarming; Britain’s cautious stance was frustrating; France’s loans provided much-needed oxygen but no real guarantee of safety. Germany, on the other hand, offered military training, industrial contracts, and what seemed to be a clear and strategic friendship.
The Ottoman elite entered the approaching world storm weakened, yet not without hope. In their view, a great European war might offer a chance to regain lost influence, redraw borders, and achieve internal unity. Caught between the fear of collapse and the dream of renewal, the empire stood at the threshold of a choice that would determine its fate — and open the final chapter of the Ottoman era.
Entering the War: Alliance with Germany and the Road to Conflict
In the summer of 1914, the Ottoman Empire faced a fateful decision. Europe was already engulfed in the flames of war, and every nation was rushing to choose a side. For Istanbul, the question was not merely diplomatic — it was a choice between survival and extinction. The empire, still reeling from painful defeats and humiliations, needed a powerful protector capable of restoring its dignity and strength. At that moment, Germany extended its hand.
The key figure behind the decision to enter the war was Minister of War Enver Pasha — a young, ambitious officer and one of the leaders of the Young Turks. He saw in Germany not only a military model but also an ideological guide. The German army was training Turkish officers, German engineers were building railways, and Kaiser Wilhelm II presented himself as a friend of Islam and a protector of the East.
Enver believed that an alliance with Berlin would help modernize the army and restore the empire’s influence in the Middle East. He hoped that a victory for the Central Powers would bring the Ottoman Empire new territories — especially the lands lost in the Caucasus and Egypt.
In August 1914, when the first shots rang out across Europe, the Ottoman Empire officially maintained its neutrality. Yet behind the scenes, secret negotiations were already underway. On August 2, 1914, a clandestine agreement was signed between Istanbul and Berlin: both sides pledged to act together against Russia and its allies. Despite the objections of some Ottoman politicians, Enver Pasha’s decision had, in effect, already sealed the empire’s fate.
A few weeks later came an episode that would mark the symbolic beginning of Turkey’s entry into the war. Two German cruisers — Goeben and Breslau — broke through the Mediterranean, escaping pursuit by the British fleet, and entered the straits, where they were greeted with great ceremony by the Turkish authorities. Officially, the ships were “transferred” to the Ottoman Empire, but their crews remained German.
Soon afterward, sailing under Ottoman flags, they shelled Russian ports on the Black Sea. Russia declared war — and was quickly joined by Britain and France. Thus, the Ottoman Empire stepped into a global catastrophe from which it would never emerge the same.
The alliance with Germany was a desperate and risky move. It offered the hope of military revival but drew the country into a war whose scale no one could foresee. Within the empire, the decision sparked deep divisions: part of the elite welcomed the alliance with the “new Europe,” while others feared the empire would become merely a pawn in someone else’s game. The people, weary of endless wars, met the call to mobilization with anxiety and mistrust.
Nevertheless, the Young Turks believed that this new war was a chance to rewrite history. They hoped to restore the glory of the Ottomans, to free Muslim peoples from colonial rule, and to once again make the empire the heart of the East. Yet behind this surge of patriotic enthusiasm lay an illusion. The Ottoman Empire was entering the world war not as an equal partner, but as a weakened ally — one whose fate was already bound to the ambitions of others.
Main Fronts and Battles: The Ottoman Empire in World War I
When the Ottoman Empire entered the Great War, it found itself fighting on several fronts stretching from the Caucasus to Arabia. Each campaign carried its own aims, hopes, and tragedies. For the Turks, the war became not only a test of arms but also a trial of endurance for a state that was already beginning to crack from within.
The Caucasus Front: Cold, Catastrophe, and the Beginning of Collapse
The first great test for the Ottoman army came on the Caucasus Front. In the winter of 1914–1915, Enver Pasha, inspired by the alliance with Germany, decided to strike swiftly at Russia and reclaim the lost territories of the South Caucasus. He counted on the element of surprise and on the support of the local Muslim population. But reality proved merciless.
The offensive began in December 1914 and ended in disaster near the town of Sarikamish. Poorly prepared soldiers, lacking winter uniforms, advanced through deep snow in temperatures of forty degrees below zero. Logistics collapsed — food and ammunition supplies failed to arrive on time. The Russian army, organized and well-equipped, delivered a crushing defeat. Of the 90,000 Ottoman soldiers, more than half perished — many not from bullets, but from the cold and disease.
The defeat came as a profound shock to the empire. It shattered confidence in the military leadership and triggered a chain reaction within the country: Armenians living in the eastern provinces were accused of collaborating with Russia, providing a pretext for the tragic events of 1915. The Caucasus Front revealed that, despite the courage of its soldiers, the Ottoman Empire was unprepared for a war of such magnitude.
The Dardanelles Campaign: A Triumph of Defense
The outcome was entirely different on another front — the Dardanelles. In the spring of 1915, the Entente launched an attempt to break through to Constantinople and force the Ottoman Empire out of the war. The Allies — led primarily by Britain and France — sought to open a sea route to Russia and strike at the “Sick man of Europe.”
The Allied landing on the Gallipoli Peninsula in April 1915 became one of the most dramatic episodes of the war. Opposing them were Ottoman forces commanded by a young colonel, Mustafa Kemal — the future Atatürk. His firmness and resolve saved the empire. His famous words — “I am not ordering you to attack, I am ordering you to die” — became a symbol of Turkish courage.
The fighting dragged on for eight months. The Dardanelles Campaign claimed the lives of more than 250,000 men on both sides. Yet, strategically, it ended in an Ottoman victory: the Allies were forced to withdraw, having failed to achieve their goal. This defense became a rare bright spot amid the empire’s many defeats, rekindling a sense of pride and self-belief among the people.
It was at Gallipoli that the myth of Turkish resilience and rebirth was born — a myth that would later become the foundation of Kemalist ideology.
The Middle Eastern Fronts: The Struggle for the Empire
Meanwhile, in the southern reaches of the empire, grueling and exhausting campaigns were unfolding. In Mesopotamia, the British, seeking to protect their oil interests and maintain control over the Persian Gulf, invaded Ottoman territory. After initial successes, the British advanced to the town of Kut al-Amara — but there, disaster struck. In 1916, Ottoman forces surrounded the British garrison and forced it to surrender. The defeat became one of the most humiliating episodes in the history of the British Army.
However, the tide soon turned. Within a year, the British took their revenge — Baghdad fell in March 1917, and not long after, British troops under General Allenby captured Jerusalem.
At the same time, on the Arabian Peninsula, an Arab revolt broke out against Ottoman rule. Supported by the British and led by the Sharif of Mecca, Hussein, it dealt a powerful blow to the empire. T.E. Lawrence — known to history as Lawrence of Arabia — served as the link between the British command and the Arab tribes, inspiring them to fight against the Turks. The loss of control over the Arab lands became a clear sign of the empire’s approaching collapse.
By 1918, the Ottoman Empire was exhausted. The war on three fronts had drained its economy, its manpower, and its will to resist. The Caucasus brought tragedy, the Dardanelles a brief triumph, and the Middle East the final blow. Each of these fronts, in its own way, reflected the empire’s fate — courage, sacrifice, faith in renewal, and inevitable defeat.
The war that had begun with hopes of restored greatness ended as the beginning of the end — the final act of the centuries-long Ottoman drama.
Internal Crises and National Movements
While the Ottoman army fought on multiple fronts, the empire’s home front became a stage for economic collapse, social upheaval, and escalating ethnic tensions. The war exposed the old ailments of the state, while the new wounds it inflicted ran far deeper than the battlefield defeats.
From the very beginning of the Great War, the Ottoman economy collapsed under the weight of mobilization. The male population was called to arms, leaving agriculture — the backbone of the country — paralyzed. Fields lay abandoned, harvests failed, and starving cities fell into the hands of profiteers. Inflation soared, paper money lost its value, and trade with Europe came to a halt. The Allies blockaded the ports, while the railways were used exclusively for military needs. By 1917, bread and flour had become luxuries even in Constantinople.
The Young Turks attempted to maintain control of the situation, but their measures only exacerbated public discontent. Forced requisitions and wartime taxes drove the population into ruin. Corruption flourished in the provinces — local officials enriched themselves at the expense of soldiers and peasants alike. Women and children took the place of men in the fields and factories, while epidemics of cholera and typhus claimed thousands of lives.
Amid the economic chaos, ethnic tensions grew stronger. In the multiethnic empire — home for centuries to Turks, Arabs, Armenians, Kurds, Greeks, Assyrians, and Jews — the war became a catalyst for mutual distrust and violence. Fearing separatism, the Ottoman authorities increasingly resorted to harsh measures.
The most tragic episode was the fate of the Armenian population. In 1915, under the pretext of possible collaboration with Russia, mass deportations of Armenians from the eastern provinces began. These forced relocations were marked by starvation, disease, and massacres, leading to the deaths of hundreds of thousands. This tragic chapter became one of the darkest pages in the empire’s history.
At the same time, discontent with Turkish rule was growing in the Arab provinces. The Young Turks’ policies of centralization and “Turkification” alienated local elites. The Arab intelligentsia began demanding autonomy, cultural rights, and a voice in governance. When the First World War began, these sentiments turned into open resistance.
In 1916, the Sharif of Mecca, Hussein, led a revolt, promising the creation of a united Arab state. The British supported the uprising with weapons, money, and military advisers — among them the now-legendary Thomas Edward Lawrence, known as Lawrence of Arabia. His guerrilla operations against Turkish garrisons disrupted communications and came to symbolize the collapse of Ottoman authority in the south.
Meanwhile, discontent with the Young Turks’ rule was growing within Turkey itself. Enver Pasha, Talat Pasha, and Cemal Pasha governed the country with an iron hand, suppressing any form of dissent. Opposition newspapers were shut down, and parliamentarism had all but vanished. The slogans of unity and progress sounded increasingly hollow against the backdrop of poverty and loss.
By the end of the war, the Ottoman Empire had become an exhausted, devastated state, torn apart by internal contradictions. The people were weary of conscription and death, the provinces were losing their connection to the capital, ethnic minorities were demanding independence, and the army was running out of strength. Amid the collapse of the old order, new ideas began to take shape — visions of national revival, self-governance, and the creation of a secular state.
Thus, the internal war that unfolded within the soul of the empire proved no less destructive than the battles on its many fronts. The Ottoman Empire, which had entered the world war hoping for salvation, was instead consumed from within by its own contradictions. Out of the ruins of the old state, a new one was slowly emerging — Turkey, soon to rise under a different banner and with a different spirit.
Defeat and Dissolution: The End of the Ottoman Era
By 1918, the Ottoman Empire was standing on the brink of complete collapse. The war, which had begun with ambitious hopes for revival and revenge, had turned into a series of defeats, famine, and humiliation. Most of its allies in the Central Powers had already surrendered: Bulgaria had capitulated, Austria-Hungary was disintegrating, and Germany was losing ground. The Ottoman army, exhausted by years of fighting and internal crises, could no longer hold the fronts. In the Middle East, British forces under General Allenby were advancing toward Damascus, while Arab rebels captured one city after another.
In October 1918, Istanbul was forced to seek a way out of the war. On October 30, representatives of the Ottoman Empire signed the Armistice of Mudros aboard the British battleship Agamemnon. The document called for a complete cessation of hostilities, the disarmament of the army, and the transfer of control over the straits to the Allies, who were also granted the right to occupy any part of the country in the event of a “security threat.”
For the Turks, this was more than just a defeat — it was the symbol of the end of an entire era.
Immediately after the armistice, Allied forces entered Constantinople. British, French, Italian, and Greek patrols appeared on the streets; their presence in the heart of the empire felt like a deep national humiliation. Enver Pasha, Talat Pasha, and Djemal Pasha — once the all-powerful leaders of the Young Turks — fled abroad, leaving the country in chaos.
The empire was rapidly falling apart. In the Middle East, the Allies were dividing the former Ottoman territories, establishing mandate regions in Syria, Lebanon, Palestine, and Iraq.
For the Turkish people, years of humiliation and uncertainty began. In 1920, the Treaty of Sèvres was signed, formalizing the partition of the Ottoman Empire. Under its terms, Greece received Smyrna and Thrace, Italy gained control over southwestern Anatolia, and France claimed Cilicia. Armenia and Kurdistan were declared independent states, while the straits were placed under international control.
On the map, only a small portion of Anatolia remained — nominally under the authority of the sultan, but in reality dependent on the will of the Allies.
Yet it was during this dark period that the birth of a new Turkey began. Deep within Anatolia, a national liberation movement was rising under the leadership of Mustafa Kemal — later known as Atatürk. He refused to recognize the Treaty of Sèvres and declared that the Turkish people — not foreign powers — would decide the fate of their country.
From Ankara, the organization of resistance began: popular assemblies were formed, armies were raised, and alliances were forged with local leaders.
From 1919 to 1922, the War of Independence unfolded, during which the Kemalists expelled the occupying forces and overturned the humiliating agreements. In 1923, the Treaty of Lausanne was signed, recognizing the sovereignty of the new Republic of Turkey. The Ottoman sultanate was abolished, and the last sultan, Mehmed VI, left the country aboard a British ship.
Thus ended the six-hundred-year history of the Ottoman Empire — a state that had once ruled over three continents. Its downfall was the inevitable result of centuries of internal contradictions, wars, and belated reforms.
Yet from the ashes of the old order arose a new nation — one that inherited the strength, determination, and faith of its ancestors, but rejected their outdated forms of power. For the Ottomans, the First World War was not only an end, but also the beginning of a new era, in which the modern Turkish state was born in place of the empire.
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