Battle of Hastings(1066): How did the Normans defeat the Anglo-Saxons
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The Battle of Hastings (1066) was a turning point that changed the course of English history. How did William the Conqueror defeat Harold Godwinson’s army? Why did the Norman victory mark the beginning of a new era, from feudal reforms to changes in the language? This article takes a close look at the causes, tactics, and course of the battle, as well as its long-term impact. Discover how one day changed the fate of an entire nation and laid the foundation for modern Britain.
Background of the Battle
The year 1066 was a turning point in English history. King Edward the Confessor died in January without leaving a direct heir, which led to a fierce power struggle. Edward, known for his piety and poor health, had no children, and his closest relatives were Norman nobles. However, the Anglo-Saxon elite was not eager to accept a foreign ruler. The council of elders, called the Witenagemot, chose Harold Godwinson — a powerful earl of Wessex whose family had been gaining influence at court for decades.
Harold was crowned almost immediately after Edward's death, but two rivals quickly challenged his right to the throne. The first was William, Duke of Normandy. He claimed that Edward had promised him the crown while still alive, and that Harold had sworn to support this claim during a visit to Normandy in 1064. The second was Harald Hardrada, the king of Norway, who said he had a right to the throne through his family ties to King Cnut the Great, who had ruled England in the early 11th century.
The situation was made worse by internal conflicts. The Anglo-Saxon elite was divided: some nobles supported Harold, while others saw William or Harald as a chance to strengthen their power. In the summer of 1066, William began preparing a fleet for invasion, but bad winds delayed his landing. Harald Hardrada took advantage of this and landed with his army in northern England in September. Harold quickly gathered his forces and made a fast march north, defeating the Norwegians at the Battle of Stamford Bridge on September 25.
But the triumph was short-lived. Just three days after his victory, Harold received news that the Normans had landed on the southern coast. His exhausted army, with no time to rest, set off once again, heading toward the fateful clash at Hastings. In this way, ambition, betrayal, and chance came together to shape the future of an entire continent.
Positions and Forces
By the morning of October 14, 1066, the two armies met near Senlac Hill, a few kilometers from Hastings. Harold, rushing from the north, took a strong defensive position on high ground, surrounded by swamps and narrow paths. His army, tired from the long march and the recent battle with the Norwegians, numbered around 7,000–8,000 men. The core was made up of the king’s guard — the housecarls, professional warriors in chainmail, armed with heavy two-handed axes and round shields. They were supported by the fyrd — militia made up of free peasants. These men were lightly armed, carrying spears, clubs, or even stones. The Anglo-Saxons had almost no cavalry — their tradition relied on infantry and the famous "shield wall."
William of Normandy, on the other hand, came to the battle well prepared. His army, about 8,000–10,000 strong, was mixed but well-disciplined. The core was made up of heavily armed knights in chainmail and conical helmets, riding armored horses — a force almost unknown in England at the time. They were supported by foot soldiers: archers from Brittany and Lombardy, spearmen from Flanders and France. The Normans also used a tactic called a “feigned retreat,” which they had perfected during civil wars on the continent.
William's forces were arranged in three lines: archers and slingers in front, infantry behind them, and cavalry in the rear. The duke personally led the center, while the flanks were given to his allies — the Bretons and the Flemings. Religion became an important psychological weapon: the Normans went into battle under the Pope’s banner, having declared Harold a man who had broken a sacred oath.
Harold, holding the top of the hill, placed the housecarls in the front lines, and the fyrd on the flanks and in the rear. Their shields, locked together to form a solid wall, created an almost impenetrable barrier. But the Anglo-Saxons had a weak point: tiredness. Many warriors hadn’t slept for several days, and the journey from York to Sussex took less than three weeks. Also, without cavalry or archers, they couldn’t move around much — they had to stay on defense and hope the enemy made a mistake.
The Normans, on the other hand, could combine different attacks. Their archers shot at the enemy from a distance, infantry broke through the lines, and knights finished off the fight. But the hill and swampy land reduced the cavalry’s advantage, and the tight Anglo-Saxon formation made every attack a bloody battle.
So, both sides relied on their strengths, but the outcome of the battle depended on more than just strategy. Determination, chance, and even rumors would play a crucial role in the next part of this drama.
The Course of the Battle
The morning of October 14 began with a light rain that turned the slopes of Senlac Hill into sticky mud. William, knowing that delay worked against him (Harold’s army could get reinforcements), ordered an attack. The Norman archers were the first to fight. Their arrows, shot from below uphill, mostly got stuck in the Anglo-Saxon shields or flew over their heads. There was no return fire — Harold had no archers of his own. This was a warning sign: William realized his tactics needed to change.
The next wave was the infantry — spearmen and swordsmen recruited from different parts of Europe. They got stuck in the muddy ground at the foot of the hill, and when they met the wall of Anglo-Saxon shields, they started suffering heavy losses. Harold’s housecarls, skilled and determined, cut down the attackers with heavy axes, even breaking through chainmail. It seemed the defense was unshakable. But then William sent in his main force — the heavy cavalry. The knights, dressed in armor, tried to break the line, but their horses stumbled on the slope, and the tight fyrd formation pushed them back.
By noon, the Normans were in crisis. The left wing, led by the Bretons, faltered and began to retreat. Among the Anglo-Saxons, hope flared: some of the militia, breaking Harold’s order to hold the line, rushed to chase the fleeing enemy. This was a fatal mistake. William, seeing the gap in the defense, led a counterattack himself. The retreating Bretons turned around and surrounded the Anglo-Saxons who had broken away, killing almost all of them. At the same time, a rumor spread that William had died. To stop the panic, the duke took off his helmet and showed his face to the troops. His shout, “I am alive, and with God’s help, we will win!” gave the Normans new strength.
By midday, William switched to a “fake retreat” tactic — the knights attacked, then pretended to run away, luring the Anglo-Saxons into a trap. Harold, seeing the danger, ordered his troops to hold their ground, but discipline began to break down. Tiredness, hunger, and losses were taking their toll. By evening, the Normans managed to break through the shield wall in several places.
The turning point came with Harold’s death. According to one version, an arrow struck him in the eye; another says knights broke through to the king and cut him down with swords. Without their leader, the Anglo-Saxons faltered. Some housecarls fought to the end, protecting the king’s body, but most fled. William held the battlefield and won, though the victory cost nearly half of his army’s lives.
The battle lasted about nine hours. It ended with a grim sight: the hill covered with bodies, mostly Anglo-Saxon. William, crowned king the next year, began building a new England — the Norman England. But the cost of this victory was huge: according to some reports, the area around Hastings took decades to recover its population because so many men died.
The Significance of the Battle of Hastings
William the Conqueror’s victory in 1066 was a turning point for England. The country, which had grown for centuries under Anglo-Saxon tradition, changed in just a few years into a feudal state modeled after Normandy. The lands of the local nobles were taken away and given to Norman barons, and the old English language was replaced by the Anglo-Norman dialect, which laid the foundation for modern English.
But the importance of the battle goes far beyond just a change of rulers. Hastings became a symbol of a military revolution. William showed that combined armies — archers, infantry, and cavalry — were stronger than the old infantry-only tactics. His success inspired European rulers to create professional armies, which gradually made kings less dependent on feudal militias.
Politically, England became part of the continental system. The Norman kings, owning lands in France, pulled the country into a centuries-long conflict with the French crown, which later led to the Hundred Years’ War. At the same time, the strong central power set up by William helped England avoid the feudal fragmentation that was common in France and Germany.
The social consequences were just as dramatic. The introduction of the "Domesday Book" in 1086 — the first land survey in Europe — strengthened the crown’s control over resources. Peasants, who were once considered free, gradually became dependent villeins. However, the mix of cultures had an unexpected effect: the Norman administrative system, combined with Anglo-Saxon legal traditions (like the jury trial), laid the foundation for the English rule of law.
Even the nature of the island changed. The Normans built many stone castles (like the Tower of London), which not only crushed rebellions but also became centers of trade. Forests were cleared to make fields, and crafts thrived in the towns thanks to connections with the continent.
It’s symbolic that today’s British monarchs trace their family line back to William the Conqueror. The Battle of Hastings is not just a military victory — it’s a “zero point” in England’s history. It showed how one battle could rewrite the culture, language, and identity of an entire nation.
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