Why did the Roman Empire collapse?

History teaches us that nothing lasts forever, and the best confirmation of this is the fate of the colossal empires of the past—once seemingly invincible, yet eventually collapsed and now exist only in the pages of textbooks. One of the most striking examples is the Roman Empire, a state whose power, according to many historians, remains unmatched. The vast empire, its advanced aqueducts, and the judicial system we still rely on today, all crumbled and eventually fell apart. But why did this happen? Let’s begin with the facts.

Map of the maximum extent of the Roman Empire

Facts

Let’s begin with the fact that no one knows exactly when Rome fell. According to the most widely accepted version, the fall of the Roman Empire is marked on September 4, 476—the day the last emperor was overthrown and the barbarian Odoacer ascended the throne, making history as the first non-Roman ruler of the empire. However, there are several nuances to consider.

Firstly, this event occurred in the Western Roman Empire. In 395, the empire had been divided into Eastern and Western parts, with the Eastern portion, known as Byzantium, enduring for another thousand years.

Therefore, if you say that Rome fell in 1453 when the Turks captured Constantinople, you would be correct. Similarly, if you argue that the empire collapsed in 630 after the legendary Roman Senate continued functioning even under the rule of the barbarians, your statement would also hold merit.

The era of 5 good emperors

Various historians and philosophers continue to offer their own dates and interpretations, as the truth is that we cannot pinpoint exactly when Rome fell. To better understand the issue, let’s first travel back to around 180 AD, a time when the empire was at the peak of its power. The territory had reached its maximum size, and internal politics had finally stabilized. The emperors ceased their bickering with the Senate and no longer saw power as a mere toy. The period from 96 to 180 is known as the era of the Five Good Emperors, and according to historians, it is considered one of the best times to live on Earth.

Five good emperors, Source: imperiumromanum.pl

The emperors of the Antonine dynasty were renowned for their incredible wisdom. Looking at the map, we would see a united and powerful Rome. During this era, emperors reached an understanding with the Senate, putting an end to the constant squabbles for power. In earlier times, Rome had seen up to four emperors change in a single year.

The financial contributions of Vespasian, who engaged in a few military campaigns, helped replenish the treasury. Trajan and his successors took advantage of this wealth by conquering Assyria and Arabia, resolving internal conflicts, and earning the affection of the people.

The Five Emperors followed an interesting approach. They broke with aristocratic traditions by promoting leadership positions based on merit, regardless of origin. For example, all of these emperors adopted worthy successors approved by both the Senate and the army, ensuring that capable individuals inherited the imperial position, which, in turn, benefited the state. However, the last of the Five Emperors, Marcus Aurelius, broke this tradition by naming his son Commodus as his successor. Commodus, who went down in history for undoing much of the progress made in the previous century, was assassinated in 192.

Crisis of the 3rd century

After the death of Commodus, Rome plunged into yet another struggle for power, a period that came to be known as the Crisis of the 3rd Century. During this time, either military emperors or senators alternated on the throne. Two significant developments occurred simultaneously. First, Christianity began to rise, while the traditional Roman Empire, which worshiped Jupiter and other pagan gods, continued to persecute Christians. Emperors, including Diocletian, actively encouraged attacks on Christians. However, the Christian community continued to grow.

In the first century, the destruction of pagan temples was a relatively minor matter, but by the third century, it sparked serious uprisings. When Emperor Constantine recognized Christianity as a legitimate religion in 313 and banned its persecution, a reversal took place: Christians began to persecute pagans, which, of course, did not benefit society. The fragmentation of the empire also brought no advantage to the people.

Roman Empire during the Crisis of the Third Century.

It is misleading to consider Rome as entirely unified, even at the height of its power, because throughout its history, Rome never imposed its way of life on others. People were not forced to speak Latin; instead, they adopted Roman traditions and assimilated naturally. This approach helped expand Roman territory, but for much of its history, the empire was already divided. The eastern part spoke Greek, a language that the emperors not only did not prohibit but actively encouraged, respecting local cultures.

This cultural distinction led to the formal division of the empire in 395 into the Eastern and Western Roman Empires. However, this should not be viewed as a critical turning point. In reality, there had always been different rulers, laws, and customs in the various provinces, much like in the East and West during the later period.

In 293, Diocletian established the tetrarchy, dividing the empire into four large regions. His successors either unified or further divided the empire, but this division was always somewhat fluid and dictated by the practical challenges of managing such a vast empire. At that time, transmitting an emperor’s decree from Rome to Byzantium, thousands of kilometers away, was nearly impossible. The logic behind the separation was simple: having a ruler close to the people would maintain stability. However, the real problem—and the root cause of the collapse—was that the stability of the 4th and 5th centuries eventually began to break down.

First, let's consider the army during the height of Rome’s power. The Romans joined it willingly, as military service came with a generous salary and land grants, in addition to patriotism. But what about the children of these soldiers? And what about the next emperor, who needed funds to sustain the empire? As a result, destructive processes began to unfold in the third century.

On one hand, the army needed volunteers, but on the other hand, there weren’t many of them, and since the campaigns had ceased, there was little to offer as payment. Salaries were delayed, and taxes on the population were constantly increased, erasing the middle class in Rome. Along with the middle class, the legendary imperial market also began to decline. This occurred during the crisis of the third century.

Everything might have been manageable if we were only talking about maintaining the army. By the time of Constantine, who converted to Christianity, there were two million monks. People became monks because they didn't have to work, and their maintenance was funded by the pockets of the residents. The population of the empire at that time was about 55 million, which, by the way, is a separate story in itself.

In the 2nd century, the empire was inhabited by 65 million people, but by the 4th century, that number had dropped to only 50 million. The wealthy elite were aging and spending their time at parties, while the poor were struggling to survive. In such conditions, there was little chance of any significant birthrate, leading to a steadily shrinking number of economically active people who could support the monks, legionnaires, and aristocrats. Meanwhile, the barbarians at the borders were becoming increasingly emboldened, and defending against them with a small army became an unrealistic prospect.

Barbarization of Rome

The history of Rome reached a point where they attempted to form alliances with the barbarians. Emperor Theodosius I allowed the Goths to settle in Roman territories. For a time, the barbarians swore to protect the empire, and for a while, they were even hired to defend the borders from other barbarian groups. However, all of this eventually led to the inevitable outcome: the barbarization of Rome.

In 410, the Visigoths, led by Alaric, sacked Rome. This event is remembered as one of the most humane captures of the city in history, as these barbarians were Christians and refrained from committing atrocities against their fellow believers. However, this did not prevent the capital from being plundered. Most monuments were left untouched, but any gold on them was taken. In the first half of the fifth century, the empire still tried to resist, but the Goths were not the only threat. There were also the Huns and the Anglo-Saxons. Rome faced multiple brutal attacks, with the most devastating being the repeated sack of the capital in 455. The barbarians even stripped the roof of the Capitoline Temple of Jupiter.

The death of Attila provided the empire with some relief. If Rome itself was plundered, imagine what happened to the rest of the country. The barbarians showed no mercy in these regions and established their states. By 460, only the territory of Italy remained of the Western Roman Empire, and even there, the barbarians had begun electing their rulers.

Western Roman Empire under Majorian (460 CE)

The last emperor of Rome was Majorian. He attempted to restore some stability by conquering Spain and parts of France, but he was overthrown by another barbarian, Ricimer. This chaos continued until 476 when the German barbarian Odoacer officially sent the Roman symbols of power to Byzantium and declared Rome his kingdom. This date is historically considered the fall of the state. However, Rome had fallen much earlier. The fall of Rome is associated with the constant turnover of emperors, rising taxes, a demographic crisis, and the complete isolation of the aristocracy from reality.